YOGA
Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/; Sanskrit: योग, Listen) is a physical, mental, and spiritual practice or discipline which originated in India. There is a broad variety of schools, practices and goals[1] in Hinduism, Buddhism (including Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism[2][3][4]) andJainism.[5][6][7][6] The best-known are Haṭh yoga and Raja yoga.
The origins of Yoga have been speculated to date back to pre-Vedic Indian traditions, but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, in ancient India's ascetic circles, which are also credited with the early sramana movements.[8][note 1] The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads[9] and Buddhist Pāli Canon,[10] probably of third century BCE or later. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE,[11][12] but only gained prominence in the 20th century.[13] Hatha yoga texts emerged around 11th century CE, and in its origins was related toTantrism.[14][15]
Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west,[16] following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century.[16] In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world.[15] Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more than physical exercise, it has a meditative and spiritual core.[17] One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy.[18]
Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease. The results of these studies[19][20] have been mixed and inconclusive, with cancer studies suggesting none to unclear effectiveness, and others suggesting yoga may reduce risk factors and aid in a patient's psychological healing process
Contents
- 1 Etymology
- 2 Goal of Yoga
- 3 Schools of Yoga
- 4 History
- 5 Yoga physiology
- 6 Yoga compared with other systems of meditation
- 7 International Yoga Day
- 8 See also
- 9 Notes
- 10 References
- 11 Sources
- 12 Further reading
- 13 External links
Asanas[edit]
| Sanskrit transliteration | Sanskrit | English | Image | Classification |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adho Mukha Śvānāsana | अधोमुखश्वानासन | Downward-Facing Dog Pose |  | Arm Balance and Forward Bend. |
| Adho Mukha Vṛkṣāsana | अधोमुखवृक्षासन | Downward-Facing Tree (Full Arm Balance) |  | Arm Balance |
| Ākarṇa Dhanurāsana | आकर्णधनुरासन | Bow posture up to ear | Forward Bend (Paschima Pratana Sthiti) | |
| Anantāsana | अनन्तासन | Ananta's pose |  | Supine Leg stretch |
| Anjaneyasana | अञ्जनेयरासन | Honorable Pose, Crescent Moon, Crescent Lunge |  | Standing asana (Hip opener) |
| Ardha Candrāsana | अर्धचन्द्रासन | Half moon |  | Standing asana (Uttihista Sthiti) |
| Ardha Matsyendrāsana | अर्धमत्स्येन्द्रासन | Half lord of the fishes pose |  | Twisting (Parivrrta Sthiti) |
| Ardha Navāsana | अर्धनावासन | Half boat posture |  | Abdominal asana (Udara Akunchana Sthiti) |
| Aṣṭāvakrāsana | अष्टावक्रासन | Aṣṭāvakra's pose |  | Arm SECe |
| Baddha Koṇāsana | बद्धकोणसन | Bound angle |  | Sitting asana/Forward Bend (Upavista Sthiti/Paschima Pratana Sthiti) |
| Bakāsana | बकासन | Crane |  | Arm Balance |
| Bālāsana | बालासन | Child's Pose |  | Kneeling forward bend |
| Bharadvājāsana | भरद्वाजासन | Bharadvaja's twist | .JPG) | Twisting (Parivrrta Sthiti) |
| Bhekāsana | भेकासन | Frog |  | Backbend (Extension) (Purva Pratana Sthiti) |
| Bhujaṅgāsana | भुजङ्गासन | Cobra |  | Backbend (Purva Pratana Sthiti) |
| Bhujapīḍāsana | भुजपीडासन | Arm-pressing posture |  | Arm balance |
| Bidalasana | बिडालासन | Cat Pose | Kneeling | |
| Caturaṅga Daṇḍāsana | चतुरङ्गदण्डासन | Four-Limbed Staff |  | Arm Balance |
| Chakrasana | चक्रासन | Wheel |  | Backbend (Purva Pratana Sthiti) |
| Daṇḍāsana | दण्डासन | Staff pose |  | Sitting asana (Upavista Sthiti) |
| Dhanurāsana | धनुरासन | Bow |  | Backbend (Purva Pratana Sthiti) |
| Dvi Pāda Sirsāsana | द्विपादशिरसासन | Both feet behind head (lit: two-footed head pose) | Forward Bend (Paschima Pratana Sthiti) | |
| Dvi Pāda Viparīta Daṇḍāsana | द्विपदविपरीतदन्डासन | Two-Legged Inverted Staff Pose |  | Backbend (Purva Pratana Sthiti) |
| Eka Pada Koundinyāsana I | एकपादकौन्दिन्यासन | Koundinya's pose, twisted one legged arm balance |  | Arm balance |
| Eka Pada Koundinyasana II | एकपादकौन्दिन्यासन | Koundinya's pose, one legged arm balance with straight legs |  | Arm balance |
| Eka Pāda Rājakapotāsana I | एकपादराजकपोतासन | One-Legged King Pigeon |  | Backbend (Purva Pratana Sthiti) |
| Ekapādaśīrṣāsana | एकपादशीर्षासन | Foot behind Head Pose | Forward Bend (Paschima Pratana Sthiti) | |
| Eka pāda śīrṣāsana | एकपादशीर्षासन | One legged supported head balance | Inverted asana (Viparita Sthiti) | |
| Garuḍāsana | गरुडासन | Eagle pose |  | Standing asana (Uttihista Sthiti) |
| Gomukhāsana | गोमुखासन | Cow faced pose |  | Sitting asana (Upavista Sthiti) |
| Guptasana | गुप्तसन | |||
| Halāsana | हलासन | Plough |  | Inverted asana (Viparita Sthiti) |
| Hanumanāsana | हनुमनासन | Monkey Pose |  | Leg Stretch |
| Jānuśīrṣāsana | जानुशीर्षासन | Head-to-Knee Forward Bend |  | Forward Bend (Paschima Pratana Sthiti) |
| Jaṭharaparivartanāsana | जठरपरिवर्तनासन | Belly-revolving posture | ||
| Karṇapīḍāsana | कपोतासन | Ear-pressing |  | Inverted asana (Viparita Sthiti) |
| Krāuñcāsana | क्रौञ्चासन | Heron | ||
| Kukkuṭāsana | कुक्कुटासन | Cockerel |  | Arm Balance |
| Kūrmāsana | कूर्मासन | Tortoise |
Modern history
Reception in the West
Various yoga asanas.
|
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience, Swami Vivekananda, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.[193] The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists, among them R. W. Emerson (1803-1882), who drew on German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G. F. W. Hegel (1770-1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), Max Mueller (1823-1900), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) and others who had (to varying degrees) interests in things Indian.[194]
Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public's view of Yoga.[195] Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.[196] The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neoplatonism-based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. M. Eliade, himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions,[citation needed] brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.[note 25] With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.[197]
The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of N. C. Paul and Major D. Basu in the late 19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897-1989) and Swami Kuvalayananda.[198] Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda’s Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center, starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science.[199]
The West,[clarification needed] in the early 21st century typically associates the term "yoga" with Hatha yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise.[200] During the 1910s and 1920s in the USA, yoga suffered a period of bad publicity due largely to the backlash against immigration, a rise in puritanical values, and a number of scandals. In the 1930s and 1940s yoga began to gain more public acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement.[citation needed] In the 1950s the United States saw another period of paranoia against yoga,[195] but by the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages, those of Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963) and of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989).[201] Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included B.K.S. Iyengar (1918-2014), K. Pattabhi Jois (1915-2009), Swami Vishnu-devananda (1927-1993), and Swami Satchidananda (1914-2002).[202][203][204] Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969.[205] Comprehensive, classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, Samkhya, the subtle body theory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass (1923-), in the United States and Canada.[206]
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter-culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to any religious denomination.[193] Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19th and early-20th century Western exercise traditions.[207]
A group of people practicing yoga in 2012.
| “ | Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,... Every day, millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge. - Barack Obama | ” |
As of 2013 some schools in the United States oppose the practice of yoga inside educational facilities, saying it promotes Hinduism in violation of the Establishment Clause.[209]
The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly-trained professionals deliver instruction. The College cites yoga's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength.[210]
Medicine
Main article: Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine
Potential benefits for adults
While much of the medical community regards the results of yoga research as significant, others point to many flaws which undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias.[211][212][213] Long-term yoga users in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health improvements, as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics.[214] There is evidence to suggest that regular yoga practice increases brain GABA levels, and yoga has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically-matched exercises, such as walking.[215][216] The three main focuses of Hatha yoga (exercise, breathing, and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease. Overall, studies of the effects of yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood-pressure, improve symptoms of heart failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lower cardiovascular risk factors.[217] For chronic low back pain, specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs has been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alone in a UK clinical trial.[218] Other smaller studies support this finding.[219][220] The Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs programme is the dominant treatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone) due to 8.5 fewer days off work each year.[221] A research group from Boston University School of Medicine also tested yoga's effects on lower-back pain. Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteers practiced yoga while the control group continued with standard treatment for back pain. The reported pain for yoga participants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop. Yoga participants also had a drop of 80% in the use of pain medication.[222]There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to increase anxiety control.[223] Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs include yoga as a mind-body technique to reduce stress. A study found that after seven weeks the group treated with yoga reported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group. Another study found that MBSR had showed positive effects on sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growth in cancer patients.[224]
Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia.[225] Some encouraging, but inconclusive, evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia and improve health-related quality of life.[20]
Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increase their quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale and the Quality of Recovery Index.[226]
Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning (executive functioning, including inhibitory control) acute benefit.[227]
The effectiveness of yoga to prevent secondary coronary heart disease is uncertain.[228] There is no substantial evidence for the effectiveness of yoga in regulating heart rate variability.[229]
Physical injuries
See also: Sports injury
A small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries;[230] therefore, caution and common sense are recommended.[231]
Yoga has been criticized for being potentially dangerous and being a
cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic
outlet syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal
stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the common fibular nerve, "Yoga foot drop,"[232] etc. An exposé of these problems by William Broad published in January, 2012 in The New York Times Magazine[233] resulted in controversy within the international yoga community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, and author of The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards,[234] had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture.[235] Torn muscles, knee injuries,[236] and headaches are common ailments which may result from yoga practice.[237]An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries.[230]
Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation, for pregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postures which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged.[238]
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners' competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them.[233][237]
Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke.[239][240]
Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice.[241]
Pediatrics
It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief: Many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas, California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E.,
General information on Yoga
Information On Yoga
The classical system of yoga dates back to around 5,000 years. During the ancient times, the aspiration for long life, health, greater personal freedom, and higher self understanding brought about this system of mental and physical exercise that has spread all around the world. The term ‘yoga’ means ‘to yolk or join together’; thus, yoga brings the mind and body together in unity.
Yoga can be performed by most adults of any physical condition and age. Owing to the gentle nature of yoga, even the individuals with physical limitations can benefit by practicing a yoga routine. The best way to start off with yoga is to get yourself a good video or book or find a qualified instructor. Yoga for children below 16 years of age is not recommended because the glandular and nervous systems are growing, and the different postures can cause an interference with the natural growth. The yoga postures and breathing exercises will be more beneficial when combined with a yogic diet.
Submitted by G M on August 12, 2011 at 01:11
Can I Get Some More Information About Yoga?
Yoga is known to be one of the most beneficial physical and mental disciplines that help you improve both your physical and emotional health. There are combinations of exercises that include both mental and physical disciplines, which allow you to achieve overall well-being.
Yoga is a very ancient discipline, and it is based on a set of traditional philosophies. Yoga is not only a physical discipline, but a way of life, which includes, exercise, meditation, and diet as well. Ashtanga yoga, which is one of the oldest types of yoga, lays out the way of life that yogis follow. This helps them gain a larger control over their physical body, their emotions, and even their spiritual beings.
However, while following the traditional yogic lifestyle can help you immensely in almost all spheres of your life, it is not necessary for you to follow this lifestyle ritualistically. In fact, yoga is a highly flexible discipline that allows you to change it the way you want.
You can have the style of yoga you want and perform it in the intensity that suits you the most. It is a great choice for stress management and fits everyone’s needs, no matter what level of physical fitness they are at. Since this is a highly customizable discipline, yoga also helps you deal with a lot of physical and emotional ailments.
Submitted by s s on July 8, 2011 at 12:13
I've 3 Months Pregnancy So Can I Do My Regular Yoga?Whether you are a beginner at yoga or you are an expert, you can perform it during pregnancy. A lot of people have the misconception that exercising during pregnancy can be difficult and unnecessary. However, it is important to note that during pregnancy, you will need to have a healthy and orderly weight gain. Doctors have been able to determine how much weight should be gained during each of the trimesters.
There are some yoga styles that are safe to be practiced when you are pregnant. Three months pregnant is the earlier part of your pregnancy and practicing yoga regularly will help you gain weight slowly and in a healthy way. This also helps you lose weight more readily when you have given birth.
You can adapt some of the familiar and simpler yoga exercises for your pregnancy fitness routine. It is also important to note that there are many yoga studios that offer you yoga classes designed specifically for pregnant women. You can also practice meditation and breathing exercises that help you calm yourself down and deal with the symptoms of pregnancy.
Yoga is also a great way to prepare yourself for your labor and the birthing process. It is best to join a class rather than performing the exercises at home.
Submitted by C D on July 8, 2011 at 12:07
How To Become A Yoga Teacher?Yoga is an excellent physical discipline and one which is fast becoming extremely popular. For people who have been practicing yoga rather regularly, becoming a yoga teacher is simple. There are teacher certification courses that can be undertaken. There are no licenses that are required for you to become a yoga teacher, so you simply have to take a certification course, after which you can join a studio and start teaching batches.
Different styles of yoga have different certification requirements. Since there are a lot of different branches of yoga, you can easily pick one that you enjoy. However, it is important to know that you can get certification in specific disciplines only. If you aim for higher certifications, you can get certified for generic courses as well.
For the certification, apart from the knowledge of the physical exercises, you will also need to have knowledge of anatomy of the human body, philosophy, balancing, sequencing, as well as alignment. You will also need to know about the history of yoga.
It is also important to know that though you may enjoy teaching yoga, it is not a very high profile job and it will not pay you much. The job is also not very secure, and a lot of yoga teachers pick up other jobs as well.
Submitted by A V on July 8, 2011 at 12:03
Yoga General Information
Yoga is an ancient discipline that was first formulated in India. This is a discipline that was devised by sages and learned monks, who studied the human body and the effects that certain exercises and physical poses had on it. Although the oldest manuscripts that describe yoga describe the discipline to have been handed over to sages by Gods themselves, the scientific undertones of this discipline show deep study and research on the human body.
There are several forms of yoga, some of which are as old as the basic discipline itself. Hatha yoga, which is considered to be one of the oldest forms of yoga, has been used as a basis for the formation of many new forms of yoga. There are physical, spiritual and mental disciplines in this form of exercise.
Often, it is believed that yoga promotes Hinduism. However, the truth is that though yoga has been founded by Hindu sages, it is a very non-religious discipline. It is a highly spiritual discipline that promotes being one with God, but more than that, it helps you promote physical and emotional well-being so that you can achieve a higher awareness of yourself as well as the universe. Some of the earliest philosophies of yoga can be found in Patanjali’s ‘Yoga Sutras’.
Submitted by C D on July 8, 2011 at 12:00
The techniques of Yoga are established on three main
constitutions: exercise, breathing, and meditation. The exercises in
Yoga which are also known as yogasanas
are performed with purpose and intent to put pressure on the internal
organs of the body, thereby augmenting the body's output and total
health. It is believed in yoga that since respiration is the source of
life, by altering and boosting the breathing capacity of the individual
health can be restored. Breathing techniques
in Yoga are known as Pranayama. Yoga alters breathing to build up the
health and functionality of both the mind and the body. Through
yogasanas and Pranayama, the body and mind are now prepared for
meditation. Yoga believes that a quiet mind brings about a feeling of
contentment and healing from mundane stress. Steady practice of all
three branches of Yoga develops an enlightened and lucid mind in
addition to a healthy and fit body. There are numerous schools of Yoga. Some of these include
- Hatha Yoga - in which the bodily motions and postures, in addition to breathing techniques are enhanced. Most people relate with the Hatha Yoga exercise.
- Raja Yoga - Raja yoga is also known as the royal road, because of its emphasis on exercise, systematic breathing training alongwith meditation and deep study of yoga, bringing forth an all-encompassing individual.
- Jnana Yoga - This form of Yoga is thought to be the hardest form of yoga as it concentrates on acquiring wisdom through much study and practice.
- Bhakti Yoga - Bhakti yoga focuses on religious and spiritual enlightenment through the practice of the greatest possible degree or extent of devotion towards one's concept of God.
- Karma Yoga - Karma Yoga is practiced with the intention that all types and forms of movement, and activity of any kind which is done, is with focus concentrated on a personal concept of God.
Submitted by C D on July 25, 2008 at 05:25
Top 7 yoga asanas that you can master to tone your body easily!
Child pose of Balasana is one of the basic Yoga asana where in you curl up your body into a ball by kneeling forward. This pose helps to relax your back and improves your blood circulation.
2. Bhujangasana
Cobra pose or Bhujangasana is a backbend where in you strain your neck and spine to maintain this position. It helps reduce stress and improve the flexibility of your back. It helps relieve anxiety and even depression. (ALSO READ- Bhujangasana: How to perform the cobra pose and its benefits)
3. Makarasana
Makarasana or the crocodile pose is a great pose for all round stretching of the body. It is a pose that straightens and stretches the muscles of the back, legs, buttocks, and the back of the arms and legs. The crocodile pose in yoga is also a great pose to reduce stress and improve posture. The aim of this yoga pose is to release strain caused by other asanas.
4. Matsyasana
Matsyasana or Fish Pose helps in stretching the muscles between the ribs and also relieves the tension in your neck, throat and shoulder. It stimulates the organs of your belly and throat while strengthening your upper back.
5. Padahastasana
Padahastasana is a standing pose that helps in the toning of abdominal organs. It increases the flexibility of our spine and stretches and energizes the back muscles while improving the blood circulation.
6. Sukhasana
Sukhasana or easy pose is the simplest pose of yoga, similar to sitting cross legged. This asana eases the knees and opens the hips by lengthening the spine. It is the easiest pose to meditate in, however many people question the effectiveness of meditation in this pose.
7. Shavasana
Shavasana or the Corpse pose is a necessity of every yoga session. It is the most relaxing pose which increases your awareness of your body and helps improve your control over it.(ALSO READ-Shavasana: How to perform the corpse pose and its benefits) This pose relieves full body stress and helps in relaxing all the muscles at once. (Image Credits: Jyoti Desale)
No comments:
Post a Comment